One might worry that our results are being driven solely by the privileged individuals. Moreover, if we restrict our analysis to subjects who are not these privileged inheritors, our main result remains unchanged.
It has earlier been shown 18 — 20 that, although men are generally more competitive than women, this is not the case in the matrilineal society. Thus, one may worry that time to solve the puzzle is merely picking up on competitiveness, and the current interaction between gender and society in time to solve the puzzle is caused by the interaction between gender and society in competitiveness.
This conclusion is not the case. Our paper shows that the gender gap in spatial abilities in the task that we study interacts with culture. In the matrilineal society, we observe no gender difference in this task. These results show that nurture plays an important role in the gender gap in spatial abilities.
Our results also indicate that providing equal education and improving treatment of women at the family level may make a difference; however, this implication should be taken with a grain of salt, because causality cannot be ascertained. Nevertheless, the implications for both policymakers and ordinary people interested in reducing the gender gap cannot be overstated: reducing the gender gap in spatial abilities may reduce the gender gap in the science, engineering, and technology workforce.
It is worth mentioning that our results do not provide evidence against the role of nature. Villagers 1, participated from four patrilineal villages and four matrilineal villages. Several weeks before the study, village headmen were asked to enroll villagers interested in the study. Furthermore, they may earn additional money depending on their performance in the experiments. All participants signed a consent form and eventually solved the puzzle.
Participants were 18 y or older. Two participants opted out, and one participant did not have gender properly coded; therefore, these subjects are not included in any of our analysis or the 1, figure reported above. Participants were individually led into either a private room or a secluded area in the courtyard and given instructions in their native tongue. They were shown four puzzle pieces arranged properly to form the image of a horse. They were instructed to replicate these four pieces using a second set of puzzle pieces.
They were told that, if they did so within 30 s, they would receive 20 rupees—approximately one-quarter of 1-d wage. If a participant claimed to be done but in fact, was not, a discrepancy between the participant's puzzle pieces and the correct image was pointed out, and we allowed the subject to continue. When participants were interviewed, none expressed experience in solving puzzles. Afterward, most participants were asked their age, birth order, years of schooling, and who owns the property in which they reside.
Some subjects participated in the competitive measure. Details of this measure as well as additional details on the other measures can be found in SI Text. This article contains supporting information online at www. Read article at publisher's site DOI : Front Neurosci , , 22 Jul Nat Hum Behav , 5 4 , 04 Jan Front Behav Neurosci , , 18 Jun FRes , 20 Jun This data has been text mined from the article, or deposited into data resources.
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Affiliations 1 author 1. A comment on this article appears in " Importance of accurately measuring spatial abilities. A comment on this article appears in " Sex differences in spatial abilities: methodological problems in Hoffman et al. This article has been corrected. Share this article Share with email Share with twitter Share with linkedin Share with facebook. Abstract Women remain significantly underrepresented in the science, engineering, and technology workforce.
Free full text. Published online Aug PMID: List b. John A. Author information Copyright and License information Disclaimer. E-mail: ude. Copyright notice. This article has been cited by other articles in PMC. Go to:. Supporting Information. Keywords: cross-cultural research, nature—nurture debate, women in science, cognitive gender differences, sex differences.
Open in a separate window. Table 1. Summary statistics for time to solve the puzzle. Patrilineal Matrilineal Total Female Mean Supporting Information: Click here to view. The authors declare no conflict of interest. Spelke E, Pinker S. The Science of Gender and Science. Pinker vs. Spelke: A Debate. Accessed August 3, Summer L.
Barres BA. Does gender matter? Poole C, Stanley G. A factorial and predictive study of spatial abilities. Aust J Psychol. Utility of predicting group membership and the role of spatial visualization in becoming an engineer, physical scientist, or artist.
J Appl Psychol. Hegarty M, Sims VK. Individual differences in mental animation during mechanical reasoning. Mem Cognit. Magnitude of sex differences in spatial abilities: A meta-analysis and consideration of critical variables.
Psychol Bull. Sorby SA. Educational research in developing 3-D spatial skills for engineering students. Int J Sci Educ. Baenninger M, Newcombe N.
The role of experience in spatial test performance: A meta-analysis. Sex Roles. Steele CM. A threat in the air. How stereotypes shape intellectual identity and performance. Am Psychol. Stage C. Gender differences in test results. Scand J Educ Res. Nordvik H, Amponsah B. Gender differences in spatial abilities and spatial activity among university students in an egalitarian educational system. Ortar G. Fifteen years of the seker. Halpern DF. Merely grasping the interrelationships of factors in field settings is not enough, however, as the field experimenter must then seek to understand i the mechanisms underlying those relationships, and ii more distant phenomena that have the same underlying structure.
Until these dual goals are achieved, one cannot reap the true rewards of field experimentation. For a more patient exposition of my views on field experimentation, please see this interview with Aaron Steelman of the Federal Reserve Bank of Richmond.
To obtain field experimental data, I started in the early s by exploring behaviors in the only market I had expertise in and the one I could self-fund: the sportscard trading market. Since those early days, I have branched out considerably.
By now, I have made use of several different markets, including using hospitals, pre-K, grammar, and high schools for educational field experiments, countless charitable fundraising field experiments to learn about the science of philanthropy, the Chicago Board of Trade, Costa Rican CEOs, the new automobile market, coin markets, auto repair markets, open air markets located throughout the globe, various venues on the internet, several auction settings, shopping malls, various labor markets, and partnered with various governmental agencies.
More recently, I have been engaged in a series of field experiments with various publicly traded corporations—from car manufacturers to travel companies to ride-share. I view this as exciting because I can put economic theories and behavioral approaches to the test in the markets with which economists concern themselves. Not only have results proven to be informative and valuable but also above expectations, as successful field experiments yielding quite interesting data patterns have been generated.
Most recently, these revolve around the economics of tipping, the economics of apologies, and the economics of the gender pay gap in the gig economy. While my work in education and charity continue to be a major focus of my current research agenda, overall, the data that I have collected have provided insights into many subsets of microeconomics including how behavioral economic theories apply in the real world, pricing behavior, discrimination in the marketplace, the valuation of non-marketed goods and services, public good provisioning, auction theory, and the role of the market in the development of rationality.
Below please find select areas that my research has touched. Please click on the links and images to see my research. Students and Academics. Field Experiments Library. Testing Economic Theory. Non-Market Valuation. Learn More. What Makes People Give? Fund-raisers swear that gimmicks like matching grants, challenge grants, and rewards increase donations.
But do they? Click to read the New York Times article.
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