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The E-mail Address es field is required. Please enter recipient e-mail address es. The E-mail Address es you entered is are not in a valid format. The main task of a lacquer is protection against corrosion, weathering and chemical and mechanical influences, as well as obtaining the appealing surface.
Different manufacturers specialize exclusively in automobile lacquers. This book deals with the composition and the production of the different components and their physical characteristics as well as their application technology characteristics. Therefore both the application behavior, the task of protection, and the corresponding appearance are covered in detail. This book deals. A step-by-step introduction to coatings formulation: Insights into the chemical composition and binders of various types of paints; Exclusive selection, analysis, and annotation of existing recipes; Various examples of how to develop a real-life paint formulation.
Shai, published by Unknown which was released on This OECD Emission Scenario Document ESD provides information on the sources, use patterns, and potential release pathways of chemicals used in the radiation curable products industry, specifically during formulation of radiation curable coatings, inks, and adhesives.
As these all paint and alli ed products have got good demand in India and also having export, potential. Formulating Fundamentals for Coatings and Cleaners Summary Solvents are essential formula-tion ingredients for many coating and cleaning jobs. Without them, paints and cleaning products would simply not perform as well. However, choosing the appropriate solvent or solvent blend for a particular application is often not easy. Many variables mustFile Size: 50KB. Formulating Fundamentals for Coatings.
October 1, Reprints No Comments Solvents are essential formulation ingredients for many coatings jobs. Without them, paints and coatings products would simply not perform as well. Last edited by Kazigis. Want to Read. Share this book. Dictionary for the glass industry. International Business Postscript. Mike Mansfield, majority leader. Twelve months in Peru. Coatings Formulation by Bodo Muller Download PDF EPUB FB2 Your comprehensive knowledge base when it comes to the formulation of paints and coatings: already in its 3rd edition, this book imparts the composition of coatings clearly, placing special emphasis on the base binder in each type.
Open Access free for readers, with article processing charges APC paid by authors or their. Polymeric dispersing agents for steric stabilization From Chapter I If there is a significant difference in polarity between blocks A and B Figure I A concrete description of the chemical composition of polymeric dispersing agents is rarely found in the literature.
Steric stabilization of titanium dioxide dispersions in methyl ethyl ketone by AB block copolymers of 2-vinylpyridine and methacrylic acid methyl ester Fig- ure I Polyurethane chemistry can be used to build up these AB block copolymers Figure I They act as anchoring groups, especially for inorganic pigments and fillers.
Dilution of sterically stabilized pig- ment dispersions with unsuitable solvents may cause coiling of the sol- vated polymer chains of the dispers- ing agent and, therefore, flocculation Figure I Especially when the polymer concen- tration is too low and the molecular mass are very high, bridging floccula- tion may occur Figure I The use of certain dispersing agents to effect deliberate but reversible bridging floc- culation is called controlled floccula- tion see below and Figure I At this stage, a short discussion about the properties of mixtures of different pigments is needed.
Since paints gen- erally contain more than one pigment, Figure I This separa- tion occurs when different pigments in the fresh and still flowable paint film are no longer distributed uniformly. The surface of the coating has no uniform colour, but instead looks speckled or streaky. In this case, the coating has a uniform colour. This paint defect only becomes apparent when, e.
Finally, it should be stated that paint resins oligomers are able to stabilize pigment dispersion steri- cally in many cases. Wetting agents are also called surfactants, surface-active or amphiphilic compounds and are substances which decrease Figure I They therefore improve wetting see Chapter I The terms wetting agent and surfactant are used synony- mously in this book.
The first wetting agents to be employed were salts of fatty acids soaps ; a typical example is sodium stearate salt of stearic acid, Figure I Sodium stea- rate has a hydrophilic group car- boxylate group and a hydrophobic group long-chain alkyl group.
The maximum length of the stearic acid molecule is about 2. Sodium stea- rate is therefore unable to stabi- lize pigment dispersions sterically because that would require a chain length of at least 5 nm Chapter I Wetting agents align themselves Figure I The hydrophilic groups align themselves with the water, and the hydrophobic groups, with the air.
The water surface now no longer consists of water mol- ecules high surface tension but of hydrocarbon chains of lower surface tension. There are anionic, cationic, amphoteric and nonionic types Figure I Wetting agents can then be fur- ther classified on the basis of the chemical composition of the hydrophobic group, namely as hydrocarbon, silicone and fluori- nated surfactants. A typical hydrocarbon surfactant is the sodium stea- rate already mentioned Figure I Examples of silicone and fluorinated surfactants are pre- sented in Figure I The influence of the hydrophilic group on surfactant activity surface Figure I The longer the hydrophilic Table I At the same time, water 73 the surface tension of the aqueous surfactant solution increases.
As expected, increasing the concentration causes the surface tension of the aqueous solution to decrease; This is a dedicated single-user copy of an ebook. But Table I Secondary effects Wetting agents like all paint additives have an optimal addi- tion level which should not be exceeded because wetting agents again, like all paint additives can have unwanted side-reactions.
For example, wetting agents increase the hydrophilicity of coatings. An additional unwanted side-reaction of surface-active compounds, such as wetting agents, is foaming in water, with the foam lamellas which have large surface areas being stabilized by the wetting agent. One remedy to this is to add a defoamer.
However, solubility acts as a lim- iting condition in water. For example, in the case of the nonyl- phenol ethoxylates Figure I Orientation at phase Table I Furthermore, Figure I Pigment wetting is a requirement for successful pig- ment dispersion see Chapter I Paint properties, such as gloss and Figure I In 12 million tons of sur- factants were produced world wide; 2.
Examples of wetting agents that are important in coatings technology Three important wetting agents for paints are described in detail below. The first one is the ampho- Figure I Note that there are two hydrophobic groups. Lecithin is produced from soybean oil soybean lecithin and is chiefly used in solvent-borne paints. Such mixtures are used often as raw materials for paints because they have little tendency to crystallize.
Naphthenates e. Additives often have dual func- tions and users should be aware of this. Nonionic surfactants based on butynediol Figure I Moreover, it is claimed that they improve levelling dual func- tion. The two hydrophobic groups have relatively short chains; the hydrophilic group butynediol Figure I Industrial dispersion equipment e. Sample mill-base formula- tions will be presented in parts II to IV of this book.
Dispersion of powdery pigments or fillers extenders in liquid media is the most important step in paint manufacturing. Before we discuss it, we need some definitions of pig- ment particles Figure I Primary particles are single or double crystals and are the smallest particles obtained during pigment synthesis.
Aggregates are rigid clusters of primary particles joined by crystal faces; dispersion does not cause aggregates to separate into primary particles.
Agglomer- ates are clusters of primary parti- cles or aggregates that are loosely Figure I Dispersion process The goal of dispersion is to divide agglomerates into primary particles and aggregates. In practice, large agglomerates usually end up being divided into smaller agglomerates. The first is wetting of the surfaces of pigment agglomerates and the second is penetration of the liquid phase into the pores or cavities of the agglomerates to displace the air there.
Thermodynamics say nothing about the time needed for wetting. But, in practice, this time is very important. Other books e. Conclusions from the Washburn equation Equation I The wetting rate increases with increase in radius of the capillary pores; i. The lower the viscosity of the liquid phase e. It should be noted that viscosity decreases with increase in temperature. The longer the pores i.
Since the resin oligomers are more coiled in poor solvents, resin solutions have a lower viscosity and that improves wetting. Radius r p and length h of the pores vary with the type of pigment employed. The viscos- ity of the liquid phase can be lowered only to the limits of the dispersion equipment employed [10, 11].
This is because, as may be seen in Equation I Equation I When hmax. But the dependence of maximum height rise hmax. The smaller the radius of the capillary tubes , the greater is the height rise, i. In fine pigments r p small , penetration by the liquid phase should be greater than it is in coarse pigments rp larger; Eq. But Equation I It may be concluded from Equations I In contrast, it penetrates less, but more rapidly in agglomerates of coarse pigments.
In practice, full penetration of the resin solution into the cavities of pigment agglomerates is facilitated by allowing the mill base to stand over night. Knospe, W. Bouvy, Europ. Reck, L. Brock, M. Groteklaes, P. Ritter, W.
Hirzel Verlag [12] U. The skilled paint chemist has to accommodate all these different demands, choose the appropriate raw materials from the vast number available and, finally, develop a paint formulation.
This is mostly done in paint laboratories. One objective of this textbook is to prepare students for working in industry. Therefore, it is vital to understand the workflows that occur in an industrial paint laboratory [1]. All paint development starts with the statement of the problem. The paint formulation is then devised, and a sample is made in the lab. The sample is applied to the substrate concerned and the coating is dried or cured.
This coating then has to be tested. The test results have to be compared against the specifications of the problem. Usually, they are not perfect. So, in practice, the paint formulation has to be optimized. Therefore, the cycle shown in Figure I The optimization steps become smaller from cycle to cycle. A calculation recipe contains all the information about the components of the paint; it is for- mulated to yield parts by weight.
The calculation recipe usually lists the raw materials in the following order: binders, pigments and fillers, additives, solvents. A production recipe is formulated for each quantity, along with additional information about the production pro- cess. The production recipe lists the raw materials in the order in which they are added.
It is common industrial practice to provide additional information about the properties of the paint or coating, the test methods and permissible variations. Finally, the physicochemical interactions of the binders with the surfaces of pig- ments and fillers i. The pigment volume concentration PVC is the ratio of the pigment volume to the total volume of the solid coating [vol.
The pigment volume is the sum of the pigment and filler volumes. These average densities styrene-acrylates 1. RUC 1. Furthermore, the spaces between the particles are filled with binder. The pigments and fillers are very closely packed. Latex paints have a CPVC of about 8.
The properties of these two coatings are summarized in Figure I A simplified formulation for a stoving enamel is listed in Table I This kind of paint formulation with 1 Do not confuse with polyvinyl chloride This is a dedicated single-user copy of an ebook. Usually, all numbers in paint formulations are specified to one decimal place.
It is not usual to list parts by weight solids in starting formulations and so these have to be calculated. But this simple type of calculation is sufficient for many applications.
The linseed oil is slowly worked with a spatula into a given amount of pigment on a glass plate. The oil adsorption value is not transferable to other binders even when different densities are allowed for since the specific wetting action of those binders needs to be taken into account. Furthermore, there is a relationship between the oil adsorption value and the critical pigment volume con- centration CPVC; see below.
Unlike the much larger linseed oil molecule, the small nitro- gen molecule is believed to penetrate into very small pores of the pigment agglomerates; Figure I To sum up so far, the specific surface area BET of pigments and fillers is only an approxi- mate value of the area of the phase boundaries in paints. For coatings technology, the oil adsorption value is more important because this value characterizes the binder demand of pigments and fillers. If this is true, then the calcu- lated CPVC could be transferred to other binders.
However, this assumption is untenable as the specific interaction of different binders with the very large pigment surface areas is an important factor controlling paint and coating properties [3]. The smallest possible particle size is a single molecule; it forms a molecularly disperse solution and is thus a soluble dye Figure I The particle sizes of pigments have other consequences, as shown in Figure I Light fastness is only a problem for organic pigments and dyes; inorganic pigments are unaffected by light i.
As soluble dyes are not photostable, they cannot used for exterior coatings. Carbon blacks absorb radiation across the complete spectrum of Table I Fine carbon blacks are phthalocyanine blue 1 transparent at low addition levels transparent 50 and can be used in transparent coatings. Moreover, carbon blacks iron oxide red are photostable, absorb ultraviolet transparent 20 light and, therefore, improve the opaque weathering resistance of coatings.
Thus, carbon blacks are excep- iron oxide yellow tions among pigments. Also, fine lamellar fillers e. Lamellar pigments are used as passive anticorrosive pigments barrier pigments because they lengthen the diffusion pathways for corrosion stimulators Figure I Moreover, lamellar pig- ments protect the binder against light and photooxidation [4]. Suit- able lamellar pigments are alu- minium flakes and micaceous iron oxide Figure I The problem has been stated and the goal is to develop a paint formulation calcu- lation recipe.
The next step is to choose the bin- ders compatibility also has to be Figure I You can practically smell it, for instance in environmentally friendly waterbased paint systems. Or you can feel it using heat reflecting interior wall paints. Or simply know — like our customers in the coatings and paint industry.
Because to them, ECKART represents the commitment to constantly strive anew for custom-fit optical effects, top quality and excellent service. Innovation, research and the constant further development of our products ensure that we remain so! It is followed by formulation advice and an analysis of existing recipes.
This analysis includes a calculation of the important characteristic values of the formulations. Order at: european-coatings. For simplicity, no fur- ther additives and no tinting pigments will be used in this example. Usually, a white paint is formulated with titanium dioxide as white pigment, tinted with small amounts e.
The paint can now be formulated Table I For sim- plicity, the total alkyd resin included with the Table I It may fineness of grain be necessary to adjust the addition levels of 3. The subsequent optimization steps will yield more precise information 27 Solvesso about the addition levels for solvents. The various coats in a multi-coat system can be UV radiation, rain or humidity [4] — Chemical resistance e. The individual coats need to be balanced to each other. Conversely, application of a brittle topcoat over a flexible primer would create a crackle finish.
Multi-coat systems for automotive coatings are presented in Figure I Most coatings for automotive multi-coat systems are highly crosslinked thermoset coatings.
The main functions of the various balanced coats in automotive multi-coat systems Figure I Phosphate coating conversion coating, metal pretreatment Adhesion promotion and corrosion protection 2. Cathodic electrodeposition primer Corrosion protection 3. Primer surfacer Table I There are two possibilities for primers 2 to 4 : 1 topcoats Figure I Nowadays, there are new automotive multi-coat systems which differ from Figure I The various types of automotive paints will be described more in detail in the corresponding chapters of this book.
Automotive coatings are an example of how complicated multicoat systems can be Figures I The various automotive paints will be described in detail in the respective chapters of this book. In connection with topcoats, the term weathering resistance has been mentioned several times.
By way of illustration, Figure I It can be clearly seen that the organic binder has been degraded by photooxidation to expose the filler and pigment particles [4]. Saechtling, Kunststofftaschenbuch, 23rd ed. Kittel editor J. Hirzel Verlag p. Friedrich, student project work, University of Applied Sciences, Esslingen This is a dedicated single-user copy of an ebook. This group of paints includes those which form films exclusively by physically drying — that means by evapora- tion of solvents only — as well as those which contain binders with reactive chemical groups that crosslink at ambient temperatures during film formation.
In order that films with adequate properties may be achieved, the polymers for the most part have high molar masses. Additionally, these polymers may contain molecular structures that support evaporation of the solvents during film formation. The disadvantage of using such binders is that large amounts of solvents are needed to make the paints ready for application i.
Moreover, films which are formed by a chemi- cal crosslinking process offer much greater resistance to solvents and other agents than films which are formed by physical drying only.
Nevertheless, physically drying paints still play an important role in the coatings industry. They have excellent storage stability and are easy to handle during production and application. In particular, the molecules may form crystal- line domains.
This tendency may lead to negative film properties, e. Therefore, This is a dedicated single-user copy of an ebook. Additionally, other resin components are combined with the physically dry- ing main resins to improve gloss, levelling, and appearance filling power of the coating.
Certain physically drying paint systems require elevated temperatures for solidification organosols, plastisols. In the past, there have been many attempts to transform cellulose into products useful for the coatings industry. The most successful of these was cellulose nitrate CN. Very often, cellulose nitrate is called nitrocellulose, but this is wrong. Cellulose nitrate contains esters of nitric acid, but no nitro groups.
Cellulose nitrate is produced by treating natural cellulose with a mixture of nitric acid, sulphuric acid, and water. In the past, the cellulose came from cotton linters that could not be used for textile goods. Nowadays, the cellulose is produced from coniferous wood.
The acid mixture, for example, consists of 57 wt. The process is an esterification performed at elevated temperature. The temperature, reaction duration, and concentration of the acids determine how many of the hydroxyl groups of the cellulose are transformed into ester groups.
Addi- tionally, the polymer molecules undergo partial decomposition by hydrolysis of the glyco- side bridges. Cellulose nitrate is closely related to the gunpowder product and is highly explosive. Handling of cellulose nitrate is subject to a number of regulations. The delivery form Table II Another vari- 1 6. The molar mass significantly influences the solution viscosity. The analytical method for establishing the degree of esterification consists in measuring the content of nitrogen.
Table II The degree of esterification determines the solubility and compatibility of cellulose nitrate. Grades with a high ester content are readily soluble in esters, ketones, and glycol ether esters and may be blended with alcohols and aromatic hydrocarbons.
The molecular struc- ture is shown in Figure II These so-called E-grades are compatible with many other binders. Grades that contain lower amounts of ester groups the A-grades are readily soluble in alcohols, glycol ethers, esters and ketones. They offer less scope for blending and are less compatible with other binders than the E-grades. There are also intermediate grades known as M-grades.
An overview of the characteristics of cellulose nitrate grades is provided in Table II The different molar masses of the cellulose nitrate grades are reflected in the viscosity of the solutions. For this reason, European suppliers of cellulose nitrate use figures relating to the viscosity in their product nomenclature.
The method for determining the viscosity is set forth in the standard DIN The various suppliers of cellulose nitrate either follow this definition when describing their products, or they quote the viscosity number of specific solutions. Typical available products are listed in Table II Large molecules of cellulose nitrate are capable of forming complex molecule coils and such films are therefore flexible.
Compared with those, cellulose nitrates containing small molecules yield brittle films. This A Cellulose nitrate combined with suitable plasticiz- 10 to 15 74 to 84 ers or other partner resins leads 8 to 12 69 to 78 to tough, horn-like films. The weatherability of coatings containing cellulose nitrate is restricted. Due to the risk of explo- sion, cellulose nitrate lacquers may not be produced, stored, or applied in combination with paints containing reducing agents, e.
Furthermore, there is a risk associated with the use of paints containing cellulose nitrate for stoving enamels. In such cases, it is necessary to combine the cel- lulose nitrate with plasticizers and other resins. Plasticizers Plasticizers are chemical compounds that interact with polymers in the same way as solvents. But, unlike solvents, they have very low vapour pressures under application conditions. Thus, they remain in the films. There are two types of plasticizer, the so-called gelling and non-gelling kinds.
Their interaction with resins is comparable to that of the various solvents. Non-gelling plasticizers are comparable to thinners. They must be combined with gelling plasticizers to impart special properties to the films. The use of only non-gelling plasticizers This is a dedicated single-user copy of an ebook. The criteria for Table II Additionally, fuel resistance and the stability to saponification are important.
But today, the use of all these products is restricted due to their physiological behaviour and environmen- tal risks. Some of them are also water contaminants. However, some of them are also authorized for food packaging, and have FDA approval e. To illustrate the low vapour pressure of typical plasticizers, the following table shows the data for bisethylhexyl phthalate at different temperatures [13].
Most ester plasticizers have a gelling action on cellulose nitrate, and their use yields good fuel resistance.
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